Quertílian anaphora can are grouped as follows:
nominal anaphora (nominal pronouns) work as nouns in a sentence, they are standalone
adjectival anaphora (adjectival pronouns) work as adjectives in a sentence, they complement a noun
adverbial anaphora work as adverbs in a sentence
numerical anaphora work as numerals (the noun must be in counted plural).
Adjectival anaphora and all nominal pronoun categories apart from the personal and possessive pronouns are formed from the following pronominal stems:
m | f |
|---|---|
dé | ngi |
The masculine form is also used if the gender is undeterminable.
The adjectival anaphora are formed from the pronominal stems by adding the adjectival -w suffix and one of the derivation prefixes (see Derived anaphora) to specify the meaning (eg., angdéw is "this" as an adjective for a masculine noun, pangiw is "no" for a feminine).
The nominal anaphora only use the prefixes.
Adverbial anaphora and numerical anaphora (quantity) are formed from the following stems by adding a prefix which specifies the meaning:
place | ie |
|---|---|
time | ias |
manner | iol |
reason | iang |
quantity | (i)lhít |
Anaphora inflection
Nominal anaphora are inflected by using the definite article in front of them. In nominative, they are used without the article.
Qi lemiasí o ingq. I see her.
Wanteiu sitha mi thra o andé. They gave it to us.
Adjectival, adverbial and numerical anaphora do not inflect.
Personal pronouns
The following table shows the Quertílian personal pronouns, which have irregular forms:
| m | f | mx |
|---|---|---|---|
1sg | qi | qe | |
2sg | wé | wi | |
3sg | andé | ingq | |
1pl.ex | qira | irqa | thra |
1pl.in | qiri | irqi | thri |
2pl | wér | wét | rá |
3pl | engdér | ingqér | andér |
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns have irregular forms, which are shown in the below table. They are adjectival.
| m | f | mx |
|---|---|---|---|
1sg | noiw | naiw | |
2sg | weiw | wíw | |
3sg | déw | ingiw | |
1pl.ex | qiw | qarw | thraw |
1pl.in | qiw | qirw | thriw |
2pl | wérw | wérw | ráw |
3pl | engiw | ingriw | andiw |
There is also a reflexive possessive pronoun reiw, which is used to express the subject's possession.
Noiw em te sit. The book is mine.
Andé em te sit noiw. This is the book of mine.
Reiw lémiasí o sit. I see the book of mine.
Derived anaphora
Demonstrative anaphora are formed by adding an am- prefix to the pronominal stems:
Amdé em te sit mé qi. This is my book.
Noiw em te sit amdéw. This book is mine.
Amilhít sem sitent. He has so many books.
Amiol sithu di'eleiu. They did it this way.
Anaphora expressing identity (the same...) are formed by adding the on- prefix.
Andé sem ai sit. Qi sem o ondé. He has a book. I have the same.
Ondéw sem o sit. I have the same book.
Onilthít sem sitent. He has the same amount of books.
Oniol sithu di'eleiu. They did it the same way.
The numerical anaphora of identity can be gradated. They lose the on- and the -t of lhít in the process. (See a dedicated article.)
Lhífio sem sitent. He has the most books.
Indefinite anaphora ("some...") are formed with the ai- prefix:
Lémiaseiu sem o aidé few. I saw something new.
Sizaoleiu sithu itéra itéra aidéw. Some people have come.
Ailhít sem sitírent. He has some (amount of) books.
Aiol ol di'eleiu. I will do it some way.
Negative anaphora are formed with the pa- prefix.
Lémiaseiu sem o padé few. I didn not see anything new.
Padé sithu sizaoleiu. Nobody came.
Eleiu sem farqeiu ai ietharn panqiw. No house was destroyed.
Awureiu sem paie. I did not find it anywhere.
Universal anaphora ("all, every...") are formed with the wi- prefix.
Widé sithu sizaoleiu. Everybody came.
Eleiu sem farqeiu ai ietharn wingiw. All houses were destroyed.
Wie sem eleiu ai quférth. Danger was everywhere.
Interrogative anaphora are formed with the sa- prefix.
Sadé sithu sizaoleiu? Who came?
Eleiu sem farqeiu ai iethan sangiw? Which houses where destroyed?
Salhít síé sitent? How many books do you have?
Saiol sem di'eleiu. How did he do it?
Relative anaphora are formed with the mi- prefix.
Andé sem o sit midé sem eleiu. He has the book I read.
Pa waí miol sem di'eleiu. I don't know how he did it.